Research methodology, the body of a thesis, provides an overview of methods, tools used to collect the data, sampling techniques and mode of data analysis used in the study. Since this section provides validity & reliability of the study, it should be made comprehensible to readers. Research methodology can be crafted either by following the general layout or by leveraging research onion model. 

The research onion model, developed by Saunders et al, describes the stages that must be covered when developing a methodology section. When viewed from the external layer, each layer of the model describes the stages of the study process in detail. The onion model can be used for any type of research and in any context.

Research onion is based on three popular philosophies. They are:

• Philosophy of ontology – Ontology describes the difference between the reality and how reality is perceived. It further includes three philosophical positions.

1. Objectivism – This position is derived from the concept that human value and knowledge are objective and can be determined by the nature of reality. 
2. Constructivism – It focuses on how the knowledge bodies were developed and how the ideas were created by human decisions and interactions. 
3. Pragmatism – This philosophical position focuses on linking practice and theory. It states that objectivism & constructivism are valid ways to approach a study and both can be used to obtain solutions for problems. 

• Philosophy of epistemology – This philosophy determines acceptable knowledge of the study and addresses the issues accordingly. Epistemology is commonly used in scientific research as it lets you find the precise required information. The philosophical positions included here are:

1. Positivism – This philosophical position is based on the concept that scientific knowledge is the acceptable knowledge and is characterised by assessing the hypothesis derived from existing theory. 
2. Interpretivism – It highlights the use of qualitative method over quantitative method to acquire the desired results. This type of position incorporates human interest into a study.  
3. Critical realism – It questions the reliability of scientific knowledge and describes that the theories can be revised using new methods to obtain reliable results. 

• Philosophy of axiology – This type of philosophy helps gives an understanding about the opinions and valuables the affect the data collection and analysis. 

Layers of research onion

• Research philosophy  

This is the outermost layer of the onion model and is studied in the context of epistemology and ontology. This layer refers to the principles concerning the characteristics of the reality under investigation. The assumptions developed by the research philosophy provide justification on how the study was conducted. 

• Research approach 

Research approach is the second layer of the onion model and represents the methods used to perform the study. The research approach can be deductive & inductive, and it is selected on the basis of research aims, previous choice, personal opinions and limitations. The deductive approach flows from generic to specific. It begins with a theory and gradually moves to hypothesis that is to be tested during data analysis. On the other hand, inductive approach begins with observations and then a theory is created.

• Research strategy 

This layer is concerned with the strategies used to collect the data. The strategies include survey, experimental method, action research, case study, grounded theory, and ethnography. The choice of strategy depends on the purpose of the study and data required to perform the study. 

• Research choice of methods

The fourth layer is concerned with the methods used for performing the study. The types of methods included here are momo-method, multi-method and mixed method. As the name suggests, the mono-method includes only one study method, multi-method uses a wide range of methods and mixed method uses two or more methods (commonly qualitative and quantitative method).  

• Time horizon

The fifth layer deals with the timeframe of the study. Typically, observations are of two types: cross-sectional and longitudinal.cross-sectional time horizon provides a glimpse of a certain condition at a single point in time and confines the time duration of data collection and study process to a short period. Longitudinal study on the other hand studies behaviours and events for a longer period using concentrated samples. 

• Data collection & analysis 

The final layer of the research onion model includes techniques and procedures used to collect the data and perform analysis. This layer consists of decisions pertaining to questionnaire content, sample groups, interview questions, etc. The decisions must align with the aspects mentioned in the previous layers to obtain valid results. Also, the research designs are made clear by providing justification for each stage. This layer provides a framework including the considerations that led to the choice of research method and selection of respondents. 

Now that you know the layers of research onion, make the best use of the model and pen down an exceptional methodology chapter. 

Data analysis, regarded as the backbone of research, provides insights into meaningful information/data required to arrive at significant findings. Typically, the data include variables (quantitative or qualitative) such as price, income, performance, knowledge, etc. These data, via measurement & scaling techniques, should be transformed into numerical form to perform further analysis.

Statistics include four major scales of measurement that are utilised to categorise the variables under investigation. The various types of scale of measurement include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. 

The measurement process comprises assigning numbers to observations while complying to the rules. The approach through which the numbers are assigned defines the scale of measurement. Each scale of measurement represents a specific property of the number system. These include:

• Identity – This refers to the assignment of numbers to the response of the research participants. These numbers are used only for the purpose of identification and cannot be employed for mathematical operations. For instance, 1 can be assigned to sample A and 2 to sample B or 1 to sample B and 2 to sample 1 would make no difference in the mathematical operation. The variables with this property are measured on a nominal scale. 
• Magnitude – Variables, in addition to identification, can magnitude as well. This simply means that the numbers include inherent order from smaller to larger. For example, level of education or position in the class. Here, the variables have a number for identification and also have some order. That is, the variables have 1, 2, and so on as an identification number and an order. This is because the difference in marks between first students maybe 20 and the second & third student maybe 10, meaning that the difference between them is not the same. Variables with both identity and magnitude are measured on an ordinal scale.
• Absolute zero – True or absolute zero means that the zero as a response demonstrates the absence of the property under measurement. For example, no behaviour, no money, etc. However, the temperature on zero cannot be regarded as absolute zero as it would still have an effect, and we cannot term as there is no temperature.  
• Equal intervals – This property simply means that the difference between the numbers remains the same throughout the scale. For instance, the difference between 5 and 8 is similar to the difference between 14 and 17. Variables with magnitude, identification and equal intervals properties are measured on an interval scale. 

With that said, knowing the scale of measurement is essential as different statistical tests involve variables with different scale of measurement. For instance, a chi-square test is appropriate for nominal level, whereas Mann-Whitney is apt for ordinal level dependent data. 

Prior to determining which test uses which variable, it is a must to know different types of scale of measurement.

• Nominal scale of measurement 

This type of measurement is the lowest level that can be used in statistics. It identifies the variables with a unique value under the study. Nominal scale does not assign numerical values to the variable. Instead, categorises data without any definite structure or order. For example, consider colours such as orange, red, and blue. Assign them numbers 1,2, 3 or any other numbers. Here, the purpose of the numbers is used to provide identity to the colours and not to represent descending or ascending order. The only mathematical operation that can be performed here is to count the data. 

• Ordinal scale of measurement 

Although similar to nominal scale, this type of measurement has advanced features. That is, it has both identity and magnitude. It categorises value assigned to the variables based on their magnitude. Some values may be greater, and some others may be lesser. Such values are arranged in ascending or descending order accordingly, resulting in the ordered relationship between the values. However, the categorised value on the scale need not have fixed intervals. For example, consider the results of a horse race, where the horse that won is placed first, horse close to winning line is placed second and so on. Nevertheless, this scale doesn’t determine if the race was close or the horse won by 2 miles. 

• Interval scale of measurement

This type of measurement has properties of both nominal and ordinal level. This means that the interval scale of measurement assigns a unique value to each variable under study as well as categorises value in ascending or descending order. The unique property of the measurement scale is that it categorises values in equal intervals. For instance, on the Fahrenheit scale, the difference between 30 & 40 degrees Fahrenheit is equal 50 & 60 degrees Fahrenheit. 

• Ratio scale of measurement 

This scale of measurement satisfies identity, magnitude, equal intervals and absolute zero properties. Additionally, ratio scale has fixed zero points, and no value exists property, i.e., every value can be measured from starting point or absolute zero. Unlike other measurements, this scale can be used to perform mathematical operations. The best example here is the weight scale. Each value in the scale has a definite meaning, weights can be ordered, and the scale has minimum zero value. 

Scale of measurement is associated with the different mathematical assumption of statistical tests. Therefore, care must be taken while aligning the tests with scale of measurement of variables. 

Scientific research, encompassing relational methods, aims at determining new innovations and contributing to the existing knowledge of the scientific community. Typically, scientific research method is a combination of conceptual and empirical study. Conceptual study is widely used by researchers to reinterpret the existing or develop a new concept. On the other hand, empirical study involves experimentation to form the basis of new theory. While conceptual study is the preferred research approach in social science & philosophy, empirical study is widely used by researchers in psychology, especially when the evidence states that one variable has influenced some other variable in some manner.

Performing empirical research includes advantages such as:

• Testing new theories using scientific approaches
• Nullification of pesky errors in the study
• Allows researchers to utilise data and drive its conclusion

Similar to performing the study, penning down the empirical research paper is tedious and involves a number of stages.

1. Introduction – In this section you should introduce the nature of the research question and the background of your study. State the hypothesis you are aiming to test and the question you are trying to obtain solution. Briefly explain the type of data you are using and state whether you are testing a policy, a model or evaluating a model. End the introduction section by explaining the significance of your results, how they differ from the previous research findings, and implications of your findings. However, if your result inconclusive, briefly state the reason for the same.
2. Literature review – This section should not be limited to listing previous studies. It should two subsections. In the first subsection, briefly discuss previous studies that are relevant to the present study. The review should incorporate studies that uses the same approach as yours, employs the same dataset, evaluates the similar model, etc. In the second subsection, explain the importance of your study in detail. Discuss how your research method differs from the previous approaches, are you working on a new data/model, are you answering the research question is broadly or specifically, etc.
3. Method or materials – This section discusses informational and basic behavioural assumed while performing the study. The method section is further segregated into subsections such as:
   1. Participants : Include the number of individuals participated in your study (including the drop-out), how they were selected, their demographic information, their role in your study, etc.
   2. Apparatus or materials : Here include the equipment or scales used to conduct the experiment. If any unique apparatus was used, explain its features, calibration information, and validity & reliability of the tool.
   3. Procedure : Explain how the independent variables were manipulated, controlled, and measured. Include the special instructions given to the participants (if any). Also, discuss the steps involved in performing the experiment.
   4. Data collection & analysis : Briefly describe the statistical techniques and software used to collect and perform data analysis.
   5. Ethical considerations : Discuss the ethical considerations including the treatment of animals (if any), consent if participants, whether you have taken the approval from IRB, and many more.
4. Results – In the result section include data in terms of numerals as well as text. Represent your data using table and figures. However, ensure not to include plenty of tables & figures to avoid confusion among readers. Present evidence that supports your arguments. This might include reliability and validity of your tests. Include the validity and reliability of tests that were used to develop conditions. Ensure not to include any result that is irrelevant to your study. Also incorporate information pertaining to effect size and its significance.
5. Discussion – This chapter should map onto the introduction section. Summarise all the results and interpret the findings of your study. Start the discussion chapter with discussing your study. State whether your hypothesis satisfies your research or is rejected. Compare your key findings with that of previous studies and explain why & how your results differ from the previous ones. Also, compare your results with the literature you have referenced. Address the significance, potential implications and limitations of your study. However, avoid overstating the importance of your results.
6. References – Include references which are listed in the body of your empirical paper. List the references alphabetically. Incorporate the full name of the journal. However, the name of the author shouldn’t be included and only the initials must be incorporated.

Sample empirical research paper 

Empirical study aims to highlight statistical association between variables to develop incidence or prevalence of phenomenon. As you go deep into including valuable points in this paper, remember that the major aim of the paper is to provide details about variable that assists them understand your whole research process.

Qualitative researchers are often interested in determining the attributes, behaviour and opinions of individuals pertaining to certain issues. While there are several qualitative data collection techniques, a researcher commonly uses either participant observation (which occurs in groups) or open-ended interview (involving individuals). As group interviews, focus group occupies an intermediate position between other qualitative approaches. 

Focus group, a valuable tool for collecting qualitative data, is a group constituting of individuals with specific features who focus discussions on a certain topic or issue. 

Consider an example where the researcher wants to determine the crucial issues in a developing economy of Albania. To achieve this, the researcher utilised focus group and collected the necessary data from the participants. In the initial stage, the researcher selected participants on the basis of their knowledge on the issues faced. This was followed by dividing the participants into groups consisting of individuals of different gender and age group. The focus group helped the researcher to acquire information as well as solution for the issues faced by the people in Albania. 

Although focus group is regarded as a major qualitative data collection tool, it cannot be used in every circumstance. 

You can probably consider using this method if (1) you want to obtain detailed information about attributes, (2) gather additional information and (3) as a part of mixed method evaluation. 

1. Acquiring in-depth information about behaviour, experience, attitudes -It is useful for collecting subjective perspectives from the participants. For instance, an evaluation of a meditation program included focus groups of high school students participated in the event. Data were collected on students’ perceptions about how meditation affected their school performance.
2. Collect additional information – Like any other qualitative method, focus group provide interpretation of data. For example, teachers are trained to take up engaging classroom session. A focus group performed after several months will help you determine how the teachers are benefited from the training program and do they require any further training. 
3. As a part of mixed method evaluation – Typically, mixed methods are used to enhance the validity of evaluation findings utilising various data collection techniques. Since in focus group data is collected from groups, it can be deployed with mixed method. 

To successfully collect data using this approach, one should pay attention to two significant factors; development of focus group guide and deciding the type & number of participants. 

1. Development of focus group guide –  

The focus group guide serves as a road map to the instructor. It is nothing but a series a questions for the instructor/facilitator to use. When developing the guide, identify what kind of information you want to obtain, from whom you want to collect the information, and what are the benefits of the gathered information. Note that this guide can be used for each focus group. 

2. Select the type and number of participants for each focus group – 

Upon deciding the type of information to be acquired, finalise the number and type of participants required for each focus group. Ensure that each individual focus group consists of similar individuals. This is so because the number of focus groups depends on the number of different types of groups from which you want to collect the data. 

Next determine the type of participant. This depends on two concepts.

• Sampling concerns: While choosing the sample, it is better to minimise the sample bias rather than accomplishing generalisability as focus groups are performed with purposive samples in which participants are obtained from a limited number of sources. 
• Homogeneity & segmentation: Typically, segmentation is a decision made to control group composition to match selected categories of participants.

Segmented samples are linked with the importance of homogeneity in the focus groups composition. This homogeneity allows for free-flowing conversations among participants and facilitates assessment of differences in perspective between groups. 

Just like another data collection approach, focus group too has several characteristics such as 

• It provides desired answers rather than insightful responses.
• Investigates benefits of specific library collections
• Investigates & identifies changes in behaviour of an individual
• Adds human dimension to impersonal information
• Suggests potential solutions to identified issues

A focus group is more useful when the results of the study are unpredictable and you require open-feedback rather than comparisons of outcomes as in quantified research. It also allows participants to express their ideas, feelings. Another major benefit of this approach is that it allows you to observe the dynamics among members of the focus group while discussing their opinions. 

So, if you are looking forward to obtaining a wider range and clarify information for your research, utilize focus groups rather than any other qualitative data collection method. 

Blogging, a new and intriguing form of communication, has geared popularity in recent era and has sprouted its roots into research as well. With the growing popularity of blogs, researchers are beginning to realise the value this media to acquire data regarding attitudes, experiences and opinion, for their research. In the current times, blogging is used as a research tool, especially in the health domain and has been recognised as a potential qualitative data collection tool. 

The prevalence of social media globally is evoking interest to utilise blogs as a tool for research method. Along with the increasing  popularity of the internet, Online Research Methods (ORMs) also developed in a parallel fashion. In the mid-1990s health and social researchers sought to understand how the then developing internet media was shaping human lives and impacting human behaviour both online and offline. Conventionally, academic researchers have been using platforms such as conferences, academic journals and books to present their findings and engage in academic knowledge sharing with colleagues. The development of new communication and technology tools have given rise to new modes of interaction and the new platforms are weblogs (blogs), formerly defined as `online logbooks’. A small but growing number of researchers write research related blogs. The researchers are continuously engaged with the virtual environment. The content of the blog posts varied greatly not only among the blogs but also within each blog.

Study conducted in the health sector is basically applied research because it is used for safeguarding the health interests of people and has its global implications. So, blogs are generally used by researchers accessing populations beyond their physical reach. Generally, three types of content are provided through blogs which are expertise, activities and identification. Expertise related content provides information on a particular topic as it is specifically related to the domain of the researcher. Apart from the specific domain, the researchers are often engaged in other activities such as workshops and conferences which may be related to both teaching and research. Further, few contents may be related to the personal interest and information related to the research which is purely reflexive in nature. Though there is a clear demarcation among these contents they may often find their presence in a single blog. 

Blogs are now being viewed as a publication. They have become fascinating form of communication, personal expression and also an important research tool because of easy access to codified data and their acceptance as a source of information as well as a communication tool. 

The major hurdle in collecting data (qualitative) is the time it consumes and problems faced in synchronising data. Generally, qualitative data are collected through interviews,focus groups and observation. Apart from collecting data, it needs to be codified for analytical purposes, which in turn requires more time and resources.

One of the major benefits of blogs is that they are readily available in a print format, offer immediate availability of rich, codified data in an efficient package pre-prepared for analysis. Blogs do not require synchronisation between the researcher and the subject, and so are more convenient and less time and resource demanding. Another source of convenience can come from the content of the blog which is often categorised by the blogger according to their assignment of topic, mood, or motivation. This enables faster and easier access to information of the greatest value. Blogs provide the richness and depth of information available.Blog data is the primary method of data collection which is not subject to the influence or interference of the researcher. The dark side of the blogs used as a research method is impurity of data and reliability and validity of data biases as blogs may not always be well written. 

Getting top class education is an aspiration everyone carries in their hearts. The importance of education consultancy services cannot be undermined. With the intense job competition in the market, the students want to study in the best college. The colleges often load the students with projects and dissertations that becomes difficult to manage with their part-time work and self-studies. This article provides a description of PhD Chennai, committed to offer the best services in project research and documentation. The mission of the consultancy firm is to provide complete satisfaction of PhD students.

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The PhD aspiring students face multiple challenges in delivering results. PhD Chennai offers initial PhD research services such as development of problem statement and research topic. PhD Chennai prepares a research proposal on which the entire dissertation may be based. They offer data collection designs such as questionnaire and survey. They conduct detailed statistical analysis using the latest data collection tool. PhD Chennai offers academic paper writing services such as thesis, empirical, review and IEEE papers. For polishing the entire research, PhD Chennai offers proofreading, editing and formatting services before the final submission. Additionally, PhD Chennai offers Comprehensive Viva in which they help the students in preparing for their viva. They conduct oral examination that helps the students prepare for their PhD degrees.

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In the journey as a writer, many times you face criticism for your writing and most of us have the habit to take the criticism seriously and reflect it in our further initiatives. What is important to know here is that giving and interpreting feedback is not an easy job and it requires a lot of sorting to identify the criticism that has the required merits and the one that is ill advised. Or can we do it better? Let us give you a ready made and handy quiz to assess, to which if you answer honestly, you can know what your strong and weak areas as a writer are.If you answer this genuinely, you may not need to look at external and unreliable sources to assess your writing as you would very well know your merits and demerits as a writer.

In the below-mentioned statements, honestly evaluate your ability in each of the areas on a scale of 1 to 10 (1 meaning poor and 10 meaning outstanding ability)

• I have the ability to put together and synthesise lots of research and have a look at the bigger picture.
• I am efficient at summarising research in a clear and easy to follow a pattern.
• I have a critical perspective and can identify research gaps or flaws in existing literature and reasoning available.
• My sentence formation style is clear and there is a good transition between sentences that I frame.
• My application of transition phrases and words in sentences adds on to the synchronisation and the meaning of the sentences
• My articulation of research sentences is effective and I can draft good problem statement
• I create interesting content by combining long and short sentences in an appropriate manner
• I can craft an interesting introduction from the readers perspective for clearer understanding of the topic
• My style of writing is more active and not passive to complicate the meaning of the content
• I always complete my research before I start writing so that I feel completely ready for the endeavour
• I have the habit of writing on consistent basis, few hours every day rather than an unorganised pattern
• My writing schedule is planned according to my productivity pattern, and I make sure to use my most productive hours for writing
• I often take breaks during long writing spells for reenergising my focus
• I am open to multiple efforts in writing and recreating drafts again and again after various attempts of revision
• I am confident of my ability as a writer and do not hesitate sharing my drafts for expert advise and inputs.

Tally up the score of all the statements and see how m much you have scored from the maximum of 150. Notice the items you have rated high and the ones you have rated low. The ones you have scored good on are your strength areas while the lower ones need some focus and effort from your side. Now you are the best critique for your writing, what say?

Becoming a PhD scholar is no easy feat. You need to be motivated, dedicated and ready to face different challenges that come along during your PhD research days. Just getting enrolled in a renowned university is no enough. You must be creative, innovative and communicative to pass through various stages of PhD challenges. You need to understand and acknowledge the importance PhD proposal and synopsis that will play a significant role in getting you to your destination, i.e. attaining your PhD degree.

Writing a good PhD proposal and synopsis is the first stepping stone in your research scholar life. Your PhD proposal will establish the area of your research project, the main research questions you will be searching answers for and the research methods you will be applying. Writing a proposal is surely not easy. The topic which you choose and the rhythm which you set in your proposal and synopsis will form the basis of your research. So, it is advisable not to approach your proposal in haste or write down anything randomly.

Instead, you need to be creative and dedicated in your approach. To prepare the first few drafts you can take the assistance of your mentor. Of course, over the period of yours study, your initial thoughts and ideas will be refined. There may come a time when you may have to change the entire course of your research. For this reason, it is advisable to present a revised synopsis of your proposal every year at the annual review.

The synopsis needs to be written and organized in the similar manner as the proposal. The synopsis will also include a summary of your work which has already been completed.

Let us now discuss the structure of the proposal or synopsis.

• Working Title: You need to write a working title that will work for your project.

• Aims and statement of topics

• Review of literature and relevant practice

• Method or approach of your dissertation

• Findings

• Summary or evaluation

• Research time line

Always remember that the proposal or synopsis of your dissertation needs to be precise and impressive if you need it to get approved in the first submission itself. If it is not well-written, the dissertation committee will reject it and send it to you for corrections. Gauging the importance of PhD proposal and to prepare the PhD proposal and synopsis, you can even take the assistance of expert PhD holders with significant experience and know-how!